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Introduction

1The ISO 26000 standard defines an organization’s social responsibility (SR) as: “the responsibility for the impacts of its decisions and activities on society and the environment”. This organization must be: “in accordance with international standards of behaviour”. International standards of behavior are defined as: “expectations for the behavior of a socially responsible organization, derived from customary international law, generally accepted principles of international law, or universally accepted or quasi-universally recognized intergovernmental agreements.” (Gendron, 2011).2ISO 26000 joins many other standards that are deployed in the areas of quality, environment and safety (ISO, OHSAS, SA…), accounting and finance (IAS/IFRS standards); trade with the rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO); social and labor standards with the regulations of the International Labor Organization (ILO). It is part of a process of “tetranormalization” described by Savall and Zardet. These authors define this concept in their book “Tetranormalization. Challenges and Dynamics” (2005), as the problems posed to companies and organizations by the increasing standardization of the four main bodies of standards to which they are subject: accounting and financial standards; social standards; quality, safety and environmental standards; and commercial and technical standards. This “tetranormalization” appears to be both a constraint and an opportunity.

3A constraint, because it obliges managers to comply with a multitude of standards, regulations, laws and best practices that are often complex and make it increasingly difficult to govern their company. Managers may then be forced to choose their “preferred offenses” (Savall et al., 2009), as they cannot simultaneously comply with these different and sometimes contradictory standards.

4An opportunity, because it represents a common frame of reference for objectifying and standardizing practices relating to the environment, accounting transparency, commercial practices and respect for workers’ rights. It aims to be effective by providing the economic world with standardized solutions to technical or organizational problems for the three components – economic, environmental and social or societal – of CSR.

5 In Tunisia, some exporting companies or those that want to develop a partnership with foreign companies must implement organizational models that comply with international standards, which may be certification standards (SA 8000, ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001 …) or non-certification (ISO 26000, SD 21000).

6As Pesqueux (2010) points out, the question of ownership and integration of these standards within Tunisian organizations arises. The standards are defined as all the rules of the game that structure the strategy of companies and organizations. This question is different depending on whether these standards are exogenous (laws, decrees, administrative regulations, benchmarks, labels and certifications) or endogenous (regulations, procedures, standards, uses and customs) defined and shaped within the organization. Is the adoption of these standards part of a defensive approach to avoidance (display, greenwashing, risk prevention) or an offensive approach to integration (a form of innovation as a barrier to market entry)? In any case, it seems that the implementation of standards, which were originally simple technical rules within companies, is gradually disrupting managerial logics of an organizational and social nature. It is to the examination of these upheavals, in the case of Tunisian companies, that our article is devoted.

7More specifically, we ask ourselves how the standards relating to CSR are adopted in Tunisian companies and what changes their adoption brings about in the modes of management, production and governance in companies?

To answer these questions, we examine the theoretical links between standardization and CSR (1) and then present our case study of nine Tunisian firms that have initiated a standardization process (2). Although our results cannot be generalized to all Tunisian companies, given our monographic approach, useful lessons can be drawn from our interviews and recommendations can be made based on the contributions of our study (3).

1. – CSR and standardization

9 While the question of the theoretical links between corporate social responsibility (CSR) and standardization has not received much attention in the literature, with the exception of the work of Brunnel and Triki (2008) and Helfrich (2008, 2010, 2011), it has become a subject of academic interest following the publication of the ISO 26000 standard on organizational social responsibility. Igalens (2009) discusses this responsibility standard and the responsibility of standards in relation to ISO 26 000. Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée (2015) interpret this standard from a political perspective. We address the CSR-standardization relationship by mentioning the evolving nature of the notion of CSR (1.1.), then by recalling the different approaches to standardization (1.2.) and by questioning its contributions to CSR (1.3.)1.1. CSR: an evolving concept

10 The concept of CSR is an evolving one, whose diverse nature of approach adapts to the context in which it evolves. It has its origins in American religious and ethical practices (Crane and Matten, 2004), and develops in the form of corporate paternalism. The American approach to this concept is described as implicit and conventional (Ballet, de Bry, 2001). The work of Bowen (1953), which forged the notion of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in Europe, takes an explicit approach to this concept, whose practices appear to be more unified.

11The term global responsibility was proposed by Ayadi and Pesqueux (2003) who point out, however, that this notion is controversial due to a lack of consensus on a precise definition of CSR. In a contingent approach, the concept evolves between business social responsibility (Pasquero, 2005; Bowen, 1953; Heald, 1970), corporate social responsibility (CSR) (Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée, 2009, Perez 2012), and organizational social responsibility (OSR) through the publication of the OSR guidelines (ISO 26000). However, this controversy marks a progression, a conceptual evolution towards positive development in which there is a progressive involvement of the different stakeholders of the company.

1.2 Definition and approaches to standardization

12Standards are part of a general approach to regulating the global economy.

1.2.1. What is standardization?

13 Standardization is a voluntary and non-binding process. In order to validate compliance with the standard, it is compulsory to initiate a certification procedure on the part of the company or organization. Certification is a procedure for issuing a certificate of conformity to specific normative requirements by a third party affiliated with an independent certification body. These practices can be carried out for a product, a service or a system.

14Given the legal vacuum in Tunisian legislation during our search for the national translation of standardization, we sought a definition in the French legal arsenal, which is a source of inspiration for Tunisian legislators. In France, the status of standardization is governed by Decree No. 2009-697 of 16 June 2009. According to the terms of this decree, standardization “is an activity of general interest whose purpose is to provide reference documents developed in a consensual manner by all interested parties, covering rules, characteristics, recommendations or examples of good practice, relating to products, services, methods, processes or organizations. It aims to encourage economic development and innovation while taking into account sustainable development objectives.

15This definition emphasizes :

16- Consensus: the consent and acquiescence on the documents developed;

17- The interested parties or stakeholders for whom these documents are developed and whose requirements set out the rules of conduct, product characteristics, recommendations or examples of good practice.

18 These provisions have the advantage of assuming consensus and consent among stakeholders. They borrow the socio-political approach of the subject for whom the standards are then prescribed.

1.2.2. Different approaches to standardization19Three types of approaches to standardization have been identified in the literature (Helfrich, 2011, p. 54):

20-Technical approach: standards are developed for a technical object (industrial products and equipment, sectors). The definition of the standard given by Afnor [1][1]1. www.afnor.org, accessed on December 2, 2015. indeed shows this limitation to the object without caring about the role of the subject as an economic actor, employee or company be it. “A standard is a document that contains requirements, specifications, guidelines or characteristics that can be used systematically to ensure that materials, products, processes and services are fit for purpose.”
Socio-technical approach: This is an approach born from the meeting of three schools of thought: industrial psychology, sociology of work and engineering sciences. The work of the Tevistock Institute (Emery and Trist, 1965) reveals that the company must cover material and human risks. As man could be replaced by machine, standards were extended to management methods (ISO 9001, ISO 14000, OHSAS 18001). The new orientations of managerial standardization now include the technical object and the social subject as a strategic variable, an essential lever for the harmonization of specifications and characteristics of products and processes.
Socio-political approach: The emergence of the anti-corporate movement reached a peak in 1995 with the case of the Shell company accused of complicity in two cases. One was the execution of Ken Saro Wiwa and eight other activists in Nigeria. The other with Greenpeace for the decision to sink the Brent Spar oil rig. The loss of investor and public confidence in the company has reinforced the standards development process. Standards under ISO 26000 are an expectation of socially responsible behaviour, derived from customary international law, generally accepted principles of international law, or universally recognized intergovernmental agreements (treaties and conventions) (from ISO 26000, p. 3).

21 Thus, standardization has finally led to the development of a CSR regulation that has been gradually standardized. The company is assimilated to a socio-political subject that is in relation with the various stakeholders whose “perspective… was certainly one of the first to broaden the role of the company by opening up managerial perspectives to the socio-political dimensions of strategic management” (Gendron et al., 2004, p. 17).

22From the technical object to the social and socio-political subject, these different approaches change the object or subject for which the norms have been developed. The forms of expertise and the explicit/implicit forms of validation allow for the establishment of specific norms.

1.3. The contribution of standardization to CSR23 Standardization and the conventional harmonization of rules and recommendations for characteristics have become, since the era of globalization, an imperative for the regulation of world trade and its development. From now on, the dynamics of market liberalization are at the heart of important institutional reconfigurations that are no longer contested. CSR has become a mode of regulation for globalized companies. The company’s recourse to standards and rules of conduct is an approach that uses standardization as a tool for efficient but apparently ineffective regulation of markets.

1.3.1. CSR, a normative regulation of the globalized company

24Faced with the multiple scandals that have shaken the corporate world, CSR is a new alternative practice for companies participating in the new world order. The latter requires the integration of society’s concerns in order to deal with the financial, environmental and social abuses of companies. Standardization thus appears as a form of institutionalized regulation of globalized business (Gendron et al., 2004). This regulation is supported by national and international organizations that contribute to the elaboration of formal rules and procedures that are the standards.

25While most standards are developed as a strategic lever for the development of international trade, others are designed to find a social compromise and ensure the security of the various market players, both consumers and prescribers (manufacturers, public markets, local authorities, liberal professions, craftsmen). But the normative contours of CSR are still unclear. Some authors (Ghérib, 2009, Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée, 2007, 2009) analyze CSR through certification and conduct their studies on certified companies. The study of CSR is done without concordance and with heterogeneity for the normative reference systems considered. Some assume that the link between CSR and environmental (ISO 14001) or social (OHSAS 18001 and SA 8000) management standards has been established (Ghérib, 2009), while others analyze CSR as a compliance with the management of an integrated Quality, Safety and Environment (QSE) system, which includes at least three standards (ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001 or SA 8000).

In order to find a consensus and in the perspective of a greater harmonization of CSR practices, the ISO 26000 published in October 2010, which is based on SD 21000, has given the main guidelines of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). This standard aims to orient the organization on the different areas of action to be exploited by integrating a responsible behavior towards stakeholders. The study of CSR through certification to the 26000 standard has been the subject of several works (Gendron, 2009; Helfrich, 2010; Turcotte et al., 2011, Capron et al., 2011).

1.3.2. Standardization, an efficient but ineffective tool for regulating CSR?27 Efficiency is the optimization of the means used to achieve a result (Piget, 2008, p.9). The efficiency of standardization for coordination among socio-political economic actors can be understood in terms of positioning the production of standards for construction and development (Helfrich, 2010) or an approach, which we adopt, that relies on the use of standards for the purpose of integrating global trade.

28Several studies conducted by Helfrich (2010, 2011) on standardization and CSR regulation, are convergent. The author chooses an application of the ISO 26000 standard. By recalling that international standards are the expression of the expectations of the various stakeholders, and that ISO 26000 orients the organization on the areas to be exploited by integrating the requirements of the stakeholders, the author defends the idea of the efficiency and not the effectiveness of the normative regulation. If the CSR strategy consists of going beyond regulatory and legislative requirements by promoting innovation, excessive standardization risks installing a routine of procedural implementation that would reduce innovative capacities. According to the author, there is then a threshold of efficiency, beyond which standardization is detrimental.

29 For us, this efficiency can be called into question when the standard is instrumentalized. Gana-Oueslati and Labaronne (2011) have shown in a monographic study of an Algerian company, the case where certification is implemented as part of a strategy of rooting managers associated with a CSR approach. This instrumentalization of the approach raises questions about the commitment of its managers to CSR. Are they motivated by altruism or philanthropy, or are they involved in a mimetic approach? (Di Maggio and Powell, 1983), differentiation or membership in a club, that of companies participating in global trade (improving the brand image in order to attract new investors and new customers …) (Labaronne and Gana-Oueslati 2011; Ghozzi-Nékhili and Gherib- Ben Boubaker, 2012). The implementation of such a strategy would therefore be diverted from its initial objectives (to meet the expectations of different stakeholders). The proponents of the idea that CSR is only a myth share this view (Capron and Quairel-Lanoizelée, 2004, 2007).

30 If CSR is only greenwashing and propaganda, does certification constitute a guarantee of organizational efficiency, governance change or social change within companies? Our empirical research conducted on the basis of nine Tunisian companies will attempt to provide some answers to this question.

2. – Methodology and main results

In order to conduct our field study, we opted for a qualitative exploratory study, which was considered more appropriate to address the issue of CSR through international standards in the Tunisian context (2.1). The results apply essentially to organizational, social and governance transformations (2.2).

2.1. MethodologyTunisia has signed numerous exchange and partnership agreements with members of the international community. This commitment has not been called into question after the revolution of January 14, 2011. Thus, the Tunisian authorities are fully invested in the preparation of the H2020 program, which is the national CSR pact [2][2]2. http://www.environnement.gov.tn accessed on December 2, 2015.

33CSR has undergone some evolution in Tunisia, moving from implicit to explicit with ISO 26000. With the upgrading program initiated in 1995, Tunisian companies were led to reflect on quality issues and thus introduced quality certification according to the ISO 9001 standard. This certification has been, in some cases, followed by others. Companies have worked on various issues that can be linked to CSR, but they did not have an inclusive vision to integrate them into a CSR policy.

34The initiative launched in Tunisia in 2005 to encourage companies to join the Global Compact was one of the first phases in the development of a more or less global vision of CSR, but the results were very timid.

35International standards have often been presented as facilitating the integration of CSR in companies. The ISO 26000 standard has allowed companies to realize that much of what they are already doing is similar to CSR, which has encouraged some of them to join the pilot project launched by INNORPI in 2010 on CSR according to this standard.

36With the “revolution”, social issues have come to the forefront and have spared neither public nor private companies. It is often admitted that the “revolution” has favored companies’ awareness of social/societal issues, but it has slowed down the evolution of the implementation of standards in companies already committed. The CSR project remains enormous and the stakes are diverse.

In order to answer our questions and understand the changes experienced by Tunisian companies following the adoption of international standards, we conducted multiple case studies (Yin, 2003). The process of multiple case research allows us to focus on certain observational data, particularly the behavioral conduct of managers. In a pragmatic approach, we mobilize the genetic approach which has the advantage of developing the reasons for commitment and the modalities of involvement specific to the culture of the country or region. This epistemological position is supported by proponents of the cognitive paradigm, for whom CSR values are “culturally internalized” (Brunel, Triki, 2008).

In order to represent reality in an objective and relevant manner, our empirical approach to the company was carried out through semi-structured interviews with those responsible for quality and/or the environment within the company and who participated in the implementation of ISO standards and ensured their monitoring. They were informed about the visit, its probable duration and its objectives. The study was carried out using an interview guide composed of open-ended questions and divided into two parts: presentation of the company (activity, workforce, standards adopted, etc.) and the reasons for certification, followed by questions on the main changes experienced after certification in terms of production processes, organization and governance.

The interviews were recorded and then transcribed for analysis. The data analysis method used was a thematic content analysis (Miles and Huberman, 2005), which allowed for the classification of the data into categories. To this end, interview summary sheets are drawn up for each case studied, listing the main points in response to the questions asked.

We conducted our interviews with nine companies [3][3]3. A presentation of the nine companies is given in the appendix. that we selected from the database of the Agence de Promotion Industrielle [4][4]4…. (API). Our empirical study began one year before the Tunisian revolution of January 14, 2011, at which time we collected data from nine companies. After seven companies, the discourses became redundant. We felt that this allowed us to enforce the semantic saturation rule required for qualitative research.

One year later, we contacted the same companies again to see if the process of change begun with the certification had continued and, above all, to identify any new changes that had been recorded. Only two company managers agreed to meet with us; the others replied that they were either very busy with the social problems experienced after January 14, or that they felt they had no new data to present in relation to our problem.

42Our finding was that there has been no recertification or recertification since. The background information we gathered reported the same results as the previous ones. There has been a kind of status quo in the process of integrating the adopted standards. The revolution has created many problems within companies, with repeated demonstrations and strikes blocking any process of change related to certification or the adoption of new standards.

We have constructed a database of nine companies, most of which are export-oriented. They all belong to the industrial sector (chemical, textile, food processing, electrical and electronics). They have at least ten years of activity and are located in the greater Tunis area. They are certified according to international standards [5][5]5. National standards are developed and published by … ISO 14001, ISO 9001, OHSAS 18001, SA 8000 …).

44In 2011, and in accordance with our empirical study, the certification activity has experienced a real slowdown explained by the Tunisian revolution, one of whose main claims is employment. The Tunisian production system suffers from several problems (instability-tunrover-, lack of qualification of the workforce, lack of motivation at work …). The claims were, however, unanimous “the right to a stable job. Faced with this situation, the productive system had to solve this social crisis, which slowed down the renewal or renewal of certifications.

2.2. Main resultsThe interviews conducted allowed us to answer the following research questions: How are CSR standards adopted by Tunisian companies? How does the adoption of standards change the management, production and governance methods in these companies?

2.2.1. Managerial motivations for commitment to CSR

46 It is important to specify the motivations that led the managers of the companies studied to adopt these international standards.

47 The main reason given is to meet the requirements of international clients who are very sensitive to this type of standard in relation to their CSR strategies. In their choice of suppliers, foreign clients integrate criteria related to respect for the environment, employee safety and/or product quality: “chosen is not really the word … some clients do not demand certification explicitly, but they have questions related to the environment when they come to see us to prospect, if we are certified they give us direct directives concerning the environment”, “clients assign colors to companies according to their respect for the environment, the more respectful we are, the more we get closer to the green” (Comments from managers interviewed).

48 The reasons given by the managers of the companies interviewed, who are in favor of certification, can be summarized as follows

49- To improve the company’s reputation;

50- To comply with national environmental regulations;

51- Attract foreign investors;

52- To improve the company’s performance.

53 The adoption of one or more standards has enabled these companies to motivate their employees, satisfy and retain their customers, have a good brand image, be competitive, conquer markets, develop skills and improve productivity. They are considered necessary for better performance and better integration into the international system: “The adoption of standards has several benefits: improving the organization of work, achieving economic and financial objectives, achieving the purpose of the standard and evolving within the framework of regulatory compliance. Certification makes it easier to validate the site with international clients” (Comment from a manager).

With regard to the implementation of the standards, almost all the companies have assigned an internal manager who has been trained to become an auditor and subsequently create a working group to develop the actions necessary to integrate these standards. This internal working group was supported by support organizations (consulting and training offices) and in some cases by public institutions in charge of sustainable development (CITET [6][6]. Center International des Technologies de l’Environnement de…, ANPE [7][7]7. National Agency for Environmental Protection. for the environmental component and the CNAM [8][8]8. Caisse National d’Assurance Maladie. for the social component): “The standard mobilized quite a few people: a coordinator, a quality management manager and a certification and support firm”, “The CNAM as a State body made our task easier” (Comments from the managers).

2.2.2. The main changes brought about by certification55 The study of the main transformations induced by the process of adopting certification in accordance with the standards concerns the organizational, social and governance levels.

56 Organizational changes

57In all cases, the implementation of the standards has led to some resistance from employees, who have had to change their work habits. In almost all the companies visited, the first standard adopted was ISO 9001, which implied a number of changes in work procedures that were not easily accepted by employees. The managers interviewed cite culture as the main reason for this resistance: “Employees are not used to the necessary records required by the standard”, “Most employees are illiterate. For them, it is not usual to follow standards and procedures. It’s a question of mentality and culture”, “resistance occurs at the beginning because of the extra workload that the standard entails”, “people are not used to respecting the environment, to the use of personal protective equipment”, (Comments from managers)

To limit resistance to change, companies have emphasized training and awareness-raising activities, and internal communication has been considerably developed as recommended by the standards. More meetings have been organized, posters have been put up in the offices, an internal magazine has been created and the use of the intranet has been intensified. The interviews also show that resistance was more intense during the implementation of the first standard. For those that followed, the work was easier. The complementary nature of the standards played an essential role in encouraging companies to set up an integrated quality-environment-safety system: “Adopting ISO 9001 first made it easier for the other two standards, as people were already used to this type of system” (comment from a manager).

59 The changes experienced by these companies following the adoption of the standards are mainly organizational in nature:

60- The staff is more sensitive to quality and respect for the environment;

61- The creation of structures specific to this integrated QSE system;

62- The development of internal communication;

63- The definition of a clear organization chart and detailed and clear job descriptions;

64- The development of staff loyalty and stability;

65- The creation of a department to deal with the implementation of standards;

66- The development of human resources evaluation tools;

67- Skills become evolutionary because the standards are based on continuous improvement;

68- The corporate culture becomes stronger.

69Social changes

70 ISO 9001 has strongly modified the work processes and of course the quality of the products. ISO 14001 has also had an impact on processes, especially through the introduction of new stages such as the sorting and recovery of waste, but its main impact is felt in the working environment, which is becoming cleaner, and in the choice of raw materials, which must be environmentally friendly. OHSAS 18001 has changed the relationship between the employee and his or her workstation, the wearing of PPE (personal protective equipment) has become compulsory, compliance with safety instructions has become stricter, “the standards have given us more visibility, more performance indicators, so we have optimized the company’s activity” (Comment from a manager).

71Change in Governance

In terms of perceived changes in governance, we note first of all a lack of understanding of the concept, with a majority of the managers interviewed asking for the question to be reformulated. A majority of the managers interviewed asked for the question to be rephrased. 5/9 of them considered that there was nothing to report in this case, and that things were still the same. To help some of the interviewees understand our definition of governance, we adopted an approach of translating this concept into: “democratic/participatory leadership style”. The others mainly referred to the implementation of a more participatory management style, with the corollary of developing dialogue within the company and creating a management review.

73All the managers find that the standards are fairly general in nature, allowing for certain interpretations: “The standard never says what should be done”, this leeway means that companies find ways of adapting it to their specific needs and therefore do not suggest making changes to the content proposed by the standardization bodies: “For the moment, we are satisfied overall with these standards”, “Personally, I have good experience and I think these standards are well drafted, they develop the company’s skills and its competitiveness” (Comments from managers).

74 Finally, it should be noted that employees have been confronted with an impermeability and resistance to commitment in Tunisian companies. The difficulties are basically of three kinds: at the level of communication, training and qualification of staff, and finally the management of monitoring and measurement tools:

75- The level of communication: in Tunisia, employees used to an oral culture resist adapting to procedures that require written records;

76- The level of employee training: low-skilled staff are often reluctant to accept formal measures and procedural rules;

77. The level of measurement and monitoring tools: The fundamental principle of international standards relating to continuous improvement poses some difficulties in tracking and monitoring. Staff are not familiar with these measurement tools and may leave them on the sidelines.

78 Although the mode of governance remains autocratic, some changes have been detected at the organizational and social levels, despite some resistance from staff unaccustomed to the formality of the standards. Awareness and training campaigns organized by the companies have helped to limit the extent of these difficulties. The support provided by the certification bodies has also been effective in dealing with this resistance.

69Social changes70 ISO 9001 has strongly modified the work processes and of course the quality of the products. ISO 14001 has also had an impact on processes, especially through the introduction of new stages such as the sorting and recovery of waste, but its main impact is felt in the working environment, which is becoming cleaner, and in the choice of raw materials, which must be environmentally friendly. OHSAS 18001 has changed the relationship between the employee and his or her workstation, the wearing of PPE (personal protective equipment) has become compulsory, compliance with safety instructions has become stricter, “the standards have given us more visibility, more performance indicators, so we have optimized the company’s activity” (Comment from a manager).